临床医学英语资料（浙江省）

Z小迪

住院医师规范化培训，临床医学英语资料
Chapter 1    Patient-Physician Interaction   Page 1
第一章 医患沟通   第１页

The patient-physician interaction proceeds through many phases of clinical reasoning and decision making.
proceed  进行、开展   reasoning 推论、推理   clinical reasoning 诊断   
clinical decision 确定治疗方案   making decision 做出决定
医患沟通在临床诊断和治疗决策的许多时期进行着。

The interaction begins with an elucidation of complaints or concerns, followed by inquiries or evaluation to address these concerns in increasingly precise ways.
elucidation 说明、阐明    inquire 询问、调查    evaluation  评估、评价
这种沟通开始于病人主诉或所关注问题的述说，然后通过交流、评估不断精确地确定这些问题。

The process commonly requires a careful history or physical examination,  ordering of diagnostic tests, integration of clinical findings with the test results, understanding of the risks and benefits of the possible courses of action, and careful consultation with the patient and family to develop future plans.
integration 综合   consultation  磋商、会诊
这个过程通常需要细致的病史询问和体格检查，开具诊断性化验医嘱，综合临床发现和化验结果，理解分析拟行治疗过程中的风险和疗效，然后与病人及家属反复磋商以完善治疗方案

Physicians increasingly can call on a growing literature of evidence-based medicine to guide the process so that benefit is maximized,　while respecting individual variations among different patients
respecting  注意到、关系、说到   evidence-based medicine 循证医学
尽管考虑到不同病人中个体差异是存在的，但医生们越来越容易查阅不断增长的循证医学文献来指导这个过程，使得疗效最大化。

The increasing availability of randomized trials to guide the approach to diagnosis and therapy should not be equated with “cookbook” medicine
availability　可利用性， 可得到   randomize 随机的  cookbook 食谱，烹调书  approach 接近
但是，不断增多的可用于指导临床诊断与治疗的随机试验资料不应当作“烹调书”使用。

Evidence and the guidelines that are derived from it emphasize proven approaches for patients with specific characteristics.
Evidence  证据，迹象   guideline　指导方针  emphasize 强调
因为随机试验获得的现象和思路是侧重于求证具有某些特征病人而来的。

Substantial clinical judgment is required to determine whether the evidence and guidelines apply to individual patients and to recognize the occasional.
substantial clinical 真实的，实在的   individual 个体   occasional 偶尔的，特殊的
实际的临床判断需要确定这些临床表现和诊断标准是否能应用于病人个体，并能找出例外。

Even more judgment is required in the many situations in which evidence is absent or inconclusive.
inconclusive  不确定性，非决定性
在许多情况下，临床表现缺乏或不典型，需要考虑更多的判断。

Evidence also must be tempered by patients’ preferences, although it is a physician’s responsibility to emphasize when presenting alternative options to the patient.
temper 脾气，调音   preference 偏爱   presenting 提出   alternative 可选择的，二选一
虽然医生有责任要提出选择性问题让病人回答，但病人肯定会根据自己的倾向调节临床症状。

The adherence of a patient to a specific regimen is likely to be enhanced if the patient also understands the rationale and evidence behind the recommended option.
adherence 坚持、固执   regimen  养生法、食物疗法
enhance 提高、加强   rationale 基本原理
假如病人懂得基本原理和表现，对医生提出的问题，有特殊生活方式病人的固执容易被强化。

To care for a patient as an individual, the physician must understand the patient as a person.
care for  喜欢、照料   
为了把病人作为一个个体进行治疗，医生必须理解病人是一个人（不是一群人）。

This fundamental precept of doctoring includes an understanding of the patient’s social situation, family issues,　financial concerns, and preferences for different types of care and outcomes, ranging from maximum prolongation of life to the relief of pain and suffering.
precept  训戒   doctoring 行医  prolongation 延长
这个最基本的行医原则包括了解病人的社会地位，家庭问题，资金状况以及正确理解病人对不同治疗方法、不同治疗结果的选择，从最大限度地延长生命到临时缓解疼痛和折磨。

If the physician does not appreciate and address these issues, the science of medicine cannot be applied appropriately, and even the most knowledgeable physician fails to achieve appropriate outcomes.
appreciate 欣赏、感谢、评价   appropriate 适当的、恰当的
假如医生没有正确理解和重视这个问题，医学就不可能恰当地应用于临床，甚至一个知识渊博的医生也不能取得理想的治疗结果。

Even as physicians become increasingly aware of new discoveries, patients can obtain their own information from a variety of sources, some of which are of questionable reliability.
questionable 可疑的、成问题的、不可靠的   reliability 可靠、可信赖的
甚至，当医生越来越容易知道新发现的同时，病人也能够通过各种资源得到他们的信息，当然，某些信息是不可靠的。

The increasing use of alternative and complementary therapies is an example of patients’ frequent dissatisfaction with prescribed medical therapy.
alternative 选择，替代  complementary 补充的、相配的  prescribe 规定、指定、开处方
替代疗法和辅助疗法的应用不断增加就是病人对常规疗法经常不满意的一个例子。

Physicians should keep an open mind regarding unproven options but must advise their patients carefully if such options may carry any degree of potential risks, including the risk that they may relied on to substitute for proven approaches
substitute 代替、代用  rely on 依赖、信任
医生对未证实的疗法应该保持开放的思想，但是，如果这些疗法具有任何程度的潜在风险，都必须细致地告知病人，包括可能需要用已证实的常规疗法去替代的风险。

It is crucial for the physician to have an open dialogue with the patient and family regarding the full range of options that either may consider
crucial  严酷的、决定性的   either 两者任一
对医生来说，对病人及家属开诚布公地介绍所有可考虑的治疗选择，是非常重要的。

The physician does not exist in a vacuum but rather as part of a complicated and extensive system of medical care and pubic health.
vacuum  真空   extensive 广阔的、大量的
医生不是生存在真空中，而是复杂而庞大的医疗和公共健康体系中的一部分。

In premodern times and even today in some developing countries, basic hygiene, clean water, and adequate nutrition have been the most important ways to promote health and reduce disease.
adequate 足够的、恰当的
在未发达时代，甚至当今在一些发展中国家，基本卫生条件、清洁饮用水和最低营
养保障是促进健康减少疾病的最重要方法。

In developed countries, the adoption of healthy lifestyles, including better diet and appropriate exercise, are cornorstones to reducing the epidemics of obesity, coronary disease, and diabetes.
adoption 采纳、采用    epidemic 流行、传染
在发达国家中，健康的生活方式包括合理饮食和适当锻练，是减少肥胖、冠心病和糖尿病盛行的基础。

Public health interventions to provide immunizations and to reduce injuries and the use of tobacco, illicit drugs, and excess alcohol collectively can produce more health benefit than nearly any other imaginable health intervention.
illicit 非法的、违禁的    collectively  全体地、共同地   produce 生产、创造
公共健康干预如进行疫苗接种、减少损伤、减少吸烟、减少吸毒、减少酗酒等措施共同产生的健康效果几乎比可想象的任何其它健康干预措施都要好得多。
Chapter 5      Clinical Preventive Services  Page 11

第五章     临床预防服务
Clinical preventive services include counseling, immunization, screening tests, and reduction of the susceptibility to disease by interventions such as therapeutic lifestyle changes and pharmacotherapy.
counseling  咨询
immunization  使免除
screening    遮敝，屏敝、选拔
susceptibility    对敏感
临床预防服务包括对疾病的咨询、防疫、筛查和通过治疗性的生活习惯改变和药物治疗来减少易感性。

Preventive service often are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary.
tertiary   第三，第三纪
tertiary industry   第三产业
临床预防服务常分为一级预防、二级预防和三级预防。

Primary prevention is directed toward preventing disease or injury before it develops, whereas secondary prevention deals with early detection and treatment to impede the progress of overt disease.
deal with     解决
impede       妨碍
overt        公开

Primary prevention is directed toward preventing disease or injury before it develops, whereas secondary prevention deals with early detection and treatment to impede the progress of overt  disease.
一级预防是直接针对疾病或损伤发生前的预防，而二级预防是解决疾病或损伤发生后早期发现和早期治疗，以防止已有临床表现的疾病进一步发展。

In contrast, tertiary prevention refers to rehabilitative activities after the onset of disease to minimize complications and disability.
rehabilitative  可修复的，康复
disability 残疾，病残
对比之下，三级预防是指疾病发作后的康复治疗，以减少并发症和病残。

Because of considerable overlap, distinguishing among these phases of prevention may be confusing.
overlap 互搭，重叠，错叠，交叉
distinguishing 区别，区分，特征，特色
因为（三级预防之间）有相当大的交叉，这些预防阶段的区分可能有些混淆。

Detecting and treating hypertension could be considered secondary prevention of hypertensive cardiovascular disease but primary prevention of heart failure and stroke.  
hypertensive cardiovascular disease 高血压性心血管疾病
发现和治疗高血压可以考虑是对高血压性心血管疾病的二级预防，但也认为是对心力衰竭和中风的一级预防。

Prevention may be perceived best along a continuum from modification of predisposing factors, to preventing a disease, to avoiding premature death and disability.
perceive 感知，认为
predisposing factors 易感因素
along 沿着，前行
modification 修改，变性
premature 过早，过早发生，夭折，草率
长期持续地减少易感因素被认为是对疾病预防、避免早死早残最好的预防。

The sooner the prevention, the more likely unnecessary illness, disability, and premature death can be avoided.
unnecessary 不必要的，多余的
预防得越早，越不易发生不必要的疾病，病残和早死就能够避免。

Increasing emphasis has been placed on preventing risk factors themselves.
emphasis 重点，强调
现在越来越强调对危险因素直接预防。
The term primordial prevention has been introduced for this concept.
primordial  基本的，原始的，初生的，初发的
术语---根本性预防（根源预防、病因预防）已经引进了这个概念。

Indiscriminate screening for risk factors or disease without adequate advice and follow-up serves no useful purpose.
indiscriminate 无差别的，不加区别的
advice 忠告，劝告
没有引导和随访的毫无选择地隔离（远离、筛选、回避）危险因素或疾病是没有实用价值的预防。

The periodic health examination has evolved from an annual, broad-based, uniform protocol to an approach that s the prevention, detection, and treatment of specific diseases or risk factors for particular age, gender, and ethnic groups at appropriate intervals.
periodic  周期的，定期的
evolve 进化，逐渐发展
broad-based 无限的，基础深厚的，运用广泛的
uniform 一致的，统一的，制服
protocol 规章制度，草案，协议
target  靶，目标，对象
ethnic 民族的，种族的，有民族特色的
interval  间隔，区间
定期体检逐渐从一年一度的、全面的、统一的规定项目改进成以恰当的周期对特定年龄、性别和种群的特殊疾病或危险因素有目的地预防、发现和治疗。

Current recommendations by the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force are based on systematic evidence reviews that distinguish procedures likely to prove effective and to have substantially more benefit than harm.
Task Force 特遣部队
distinguish 区别，辨认，使显著
substantially 非常，本质上，大体上
美国预防服务特别局的最近建议是基于全面的回顾分析，这些分析选出了易于证明有效、确实是利大于弊的预防措施。

Changes in the health care system and the development of national guidelines for management of disease are likely to draw greater attention to health promotion, disease prevention, and the interface of physician-based medical care with the public health care system.
health care 卫生保健
guideline  指导方针，准则
interface 接口，界面，联系
卫生保健系统的改进和疾病控制（国家）政策的完善使人们更重视健康促进、疾病预防以及医疗人员为主的公共卫生系统的保健服务。

Physicians should consider each disorder in terms of the potential for prevention, including the possibility of adverse effects and cost-effectiveness.
in terms of 就…而言, 从…方面说来，从…角度来讲
cost-effectiveness 成本效益
医生应该以可能需要预防的角度考虑每一种疾病状况，包括可能发生的副作用和付出代价的效益。

A concept useful for clinical decision making is the number of patients needed to treat to prevent one adverse event, which is based on absolute risk reduction.
concept 概念、看法、观念
一个对临床决策有用的理念是需要治疗的病人数量决定一个不利因素是否要预防，这是基于绝对风险的下降。

This number is based on efficacy and is calculated as the reciprocal of the difference in event rates between control and treatment groups for a specified period.
efficacy  效力，效能，有效性
reciprocal  相互的，互为倒数的 ，倒数
这个数量是以效能为基础，是对特定时期内对照组和治疗组之间发生率差异的倒数进行统计。

Ample evidence connects identifiable and often preventable factors to the morbidity and mortality associated with major health problems.
ample  足够的，大量的
identifiable 可以确认的
大量的证据找出了可确认的又常可预防的与主要健康问题相关的发病和死亡因素。

About half of all deaths, morbidity, and disability can be attributed to such nongenetic factors.
nongenetic  非遗传性的
约一半死亡、发病、和病残与这些非遗传性因素有关。

Many lifestyle changes benefit multiple systems and disorders.
许多生活习惯改变有利于多个系统和紊乱的改善。

Cigarette smoking has been estimated to contribute to one in five deaths in the United States; dietary habits may affect the occurrence of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, osteoporosis, and cancer.
osteoporosis  骨质疏松症
美国五分之一的死亡估计与吸烟有关，饮食习惯可能影响心血管疾病，糖尿病、骨质疏松症和癌症的发生。

Other important personal behavior factors influencing health include physical activity, alcohol intake, illicit drug use, sexual practices, and exposure to environmental toxins.
其它影响健康的重要个人行为因素有锻炼、饮酒、吸毒、性行为以及环境毒物的接触。

The identification of informative DNA polymorphisms (e.g., single nucleotide polymorphisms) and further elucidation of candidate genes allow for detection of susceptible individuals and possible institution of measures to prevent the expression of these harmful genetic traits.
informative 提供信息的     candidate 候选人
polymorphisms 多态性       traits  特质，属性
nucleotide 核苷酸
携带信息DNA多态性（例如，单核苷酸多态性）的认识和候选基因的进一步阐明允许我们发现易感人群和可能采取的措施，预防这些有害的基因特性表达。

Several common misconceptions impede preventive health care.
impede  妨碍，阻碍
好几种错误观念妨碍了预防保健。

Many believe that diseases with a strong heritable component cannot be altered, but susceptibility to disease often requires the interaction of multiple genes and environmental factors for expression.
heritable 可遗传的，可继承的
许多人认为有很强遗传性的疾病是无法改变的，但是对疾病的易感性经常需要多种基因和环境因素的相互作用才能表达。

In addition, chronic diseases are multifactorial, so other factors can be changed to compensate for an elevated genetic risk.
multifactorial  多因子的
compensate   补偿， 弥补，赔偿
另外，慢性疾病是多因素的，所以，可以改变其它因素来弥补高基因风险。

Although gene therapy holds much promise, preventive measures currently offer the best possibilities for limiting gene expression and avoiding disease.
promise  承诺，诺言，希望，前途
虽然基因疗法有着很大的希望，目前的预防措施最有可能提供的是限制基因表达来避免疾病。

The notion that prevention is less useful in older persons excludes many who would benefit most from prevention because elderly patients generally have a greater absolute risk of disease and have been shown to adhere and respond favorably to preventive measures.
favorably  顺利地，好意地，亲切地
对老年人预防几乎无用的观念排除了在预防上本应极为受益的许多人，因为老年病人一般有更高患病风险，并且一直对预防措施极为支持、反应极积。

Also, life expectancy frequently is underestimated in the elderly; individuals who reach age 75 now can expect to live an average of 11 more years.
life expectancy 预期寿命
并且，老年人的预期寿命经常是低估的，现在将到75岁的老人可以预期平均再活11年多。


Chapter 8   Why Geriatric Patients Are Different   Page 20
第八章   老年病人的特殊性  第20页

Older patients differ from young or middle-aged adults with the same disease in many ways, one of which is the frequent occurrence of comorbidities and of subclinical disease.
comorbidities  并存病    subclinical  亚临床的
同样的疾病，老年病人在许多方面与青中年病人是有区别的，其中之一是并存病多和亚临床疾病多。

As a function of the high prevalence of disease, comorbidity (or the co-occurrence of two or more diseases in the same individual) is also common.
prevalence   流行、普遍    co-occurrence   同时发生
作为高发疾病的结果，并存病（两个或更多的疾病在同一个体同时发生）也是常见的。

Of people age 65 and older, 50% have two or more chronic disease, and these diseases can confer additive risk of adverse outcomes, such as mortality.  
confer  授予、给予     additive  附加的、附属物
65岁以上的老年人中，50%患有两种以上的慢性疾病，这些疾病能够增加不利预后的风险，如死亡的风险。

In some patients, cognitive impairment may mask the symptoms of important conditions.
cognitive   认知的、认识的    impairment   损害    mask  口罩、假面具、掩饰
在一些病人中，认知损害可以掩盖重要病情的症状。

Treatment for one disease may affect another adversely, as in the use of aspirin to prevent stroke in individuals with a history of peptic ulcer disease.
stroke   中风    peptic ulcer   消化性溃疡
对一种疾病的治疗可能加重另一种疾病，例如，对有消化性溃疡病史的病人使用阿斯匹林预防中风。

The risk for becoming disabled or dependent also increases with the number of diseases present.
disabled   残废的、有缺陷的    dependent   依靠的、依赖的
病残或生活不能自理的发生率也随着并存的疾病数而增高。

Specific pairs of diseases can increase synergistically the risk of disability.
synergistic   协同的
特殊的成对疾病可以协同增加病残的风险。

Arthritis and heart disease coexist in 18% of older adults; although the odds of developing disability are increased by three-fold to four-fold with either disease alone, the risk of disability increases 14-fold if both are present.
arthritis   关节炎   odd   奇数的、单个的
有18%的老年人同时患有关节炎和心脏病，虽然每个疾病可以增加3~4倍的病残率，但两个疾病同时存在，可使病残率提高14倍。

A second way in which older adults differ from younger adults is the greater likelihood that their diseases present with nonspecific symptoms and signs.
likelihood   可能性
老年与青中年的第二个差异是更容易出现非典型的症状和体症。

Pneumonia and stroke may present with nonspecific changes in mentation as the primary symptom.
pneumonia 肺炎    mentation 精神作用、心理活动    primary 初始的、首要的、主要的
肺炎和中风时可出现非特异性意识变化作为主要的症状。

Similarly, the frequency of silent myocardial infarction increases with increasing age, as does the proportion of patients who present with a change in mental status, dizziness, or weakness rather than typical chest pain.
silent   沉默的、静止的    proportion   成比例的、相称的
同样地，隐匿性心肌梗塞发生频度随着年龄的增大而增加，这些病人相应地频发精神状态改变、眩晕、虚弱而不是典型的胸痛症状。

As a result, the diagnostic evaluation of geriatric patients must consider a wider spectrum of diseases than generally would be considered in middle-aged adults.
spectrum   谱、光谱
因此，老年病人的诊断应考虑更广泛的疾病谱，要超过通常对中年病人所考虑的范围。

A third condition that is found primarily in older adults is frailty, frailty is thought to be a wasting syndrome that presents with multiple symptoms and signs, including reduced muscle mass, weight loss, weakness, poor exercise tolerance, slowed motor performance, and low physical activity.
primarily   起初、首先、原来    frailty  脆弱、虚弱、意志薄弱
tolerance  宽容、忍耐、耐受
主要出现在老年人的第三个情况是衰弱，衰弱被认为属于衰竭综合症，它有许多症状和体征，包括肌肉萎缩、体重下降、虚弱、运动耐受差、动作慢、身体活动少。
Some estimates indicate that the full syndrome is found in 7% of community-dwelling people age 65 and older, and in 25%of community-dwelling people age 85 and older.
estimate   估计、评价、看法   indicate   指出、表时、象征、适应征
一些人估计7%的65岁以上社区老人和25%的85岁以上社区老人这些症状全部出现。

Many institutionalized older adults also are frail.
institutionalized   使成公共团体、将……收容在公共设施里
frail   身体虚弱的、易损坏的、意志薄弱的
许多老人院里的老人也是衰弱的。

Frailty is a state of decreased reserve and increased vulnerability to all kinds of stress, from acute infection or injury to hospitalization, and may identify individuals who cannot tolerate invasive therapies.
reserve   保存、克制    vulnerability   易受伤、易受责难
衰弱是对各种压力耐受下降、易于损害的一种状态，从急性感染、损伤到住院治疗，都可以发现一些老人不能忍受侵入性诊疗措施。

The syndrome of frailty is associated with high risk of falls, needs for hospitalization, disability, and mortality.
fall   跌倒、下降    frail   身体虚弱的、易损坏的、意志薄弱的
衰弱症状与高病倒率、高住院率、高病残率、高死亡率是密切相关的。

There is early evidence that a core component of frailty is sarcopenia, or loss of muscle mass associated with aging, which occurs in 13 to 24% of persons age 65 to 70 and in 60% of persons age 80 and older.
component  成分、构成要素    sarcopenia 肌减少（症）、与年龄相关的骨骼肌质量下降
衰弱早期征象中的一个主要变化是肌减少症，或者说随年龄增长的肌肉减少，它发生在13~24%的65~70岁的老人，60%的80岁以上的老人。

It is likely that dysregulation of multiple physiologic systems, including inflammation, hormonal status, and glucose metabolism, underlies the syndrome, with resulting decreased ability to maintain homeostasis in the face of stress.
dysregulation  失调    homeostasis  内环境稳定
（衰弱时）多种生理系统易于失调，包括炎症、激素状态、糖的代谢，在症状的背后，伴随的结果是在压力面前保持内环境稳定的能力下降。

Subclinical disease (e.g., atherosclerosis), end-stage chronic disease (e.g., heart failure), or a combination of comorbid diseases may precipitate the syndrome.
atherosclerosis   动脉粥样硬化   precipitate 沉淀，促成
亚临床疾病(如动脉粥样硬化),  晚期慢性疾病(如心力衰竭），或多种疾病并存可共同形成症状。

Evidence from randomized, controlled trials shows that resistance exercise, with or without nutritional supplements, and home-based physical therapy can increase lean body mass and strength in even the frailest older adults.
随机对照试验的迹象显示无论有无营养支持和家庭运动疗法，即使是最虚弱的老年人，对抗运动能够增加瘦弱躯体的质量和力量。

This evidence suggests that earlier stages of frailty may be remediable, although end-stage frailty likely presages death.
remediable   可挽回的    presage  预兆、预示
这个结果提示早期衰弱是可挽回的，尽管末期衰弱常预示死亡。

Fourth, cognitive impairment increases in prominence as people age.  
prominence   突出、显著
第四，人们变老时认知损害显著增加。

Cognitive impairment is a risk factor for a wide range of adverse outcomes, including falls, immobilization, dependency, institutionalization, and mortality.
immobilization    活动能力减少    institutionalization    制度化、专门照料
认知损害是大量不佳预后的风险因子，包括摔倒、活动能力下降、不能自理、需住老人院护理、死亡。

Cognitive impairment complicates diagnosis and requires additional care giving to ensure safety.
认知损害使诊断复杂，为保证安全需要更多的照料。

Finally, a serious and common outcome of chronic diseases of aging is physical disability, defined as having difficulty or being dependent on others for the conduct of essential or personally meaningful activities of life, from basic self-care (e.g., bathing or toileting) to tasks required to live independently (e.g., shopping, preparing meals, or paying bills) to a full range of activities considered to be productive and/or personally meaningful.
最后，老年人慢性病严重又常见的结果是身体能力不足，描述为个人最基本的或有意义的日常活动有困难或不得不依靠别人帮助指导，从基本的自理（如洗澡或如厕）到独立生活需要的各种任务（如购物、做饭、支付各种账单），到具有集体和／或个人意义的所有活动。

Of older adults, 40% report difficulty with tasks requiring mobility, and difficulty with mobility predicts the future development of difficulty in instrumental activities of daily living (IADL; household management tasks) and activities of daily living (ADL; basic self-care tasks).
在老年人中， 40%对需要运动的任务有困难，运动困难提示将来开展日常工具锻炼（IADL；家庭护理项目）和目常锻炼（ADL；基本自理项目）的困难。

In persons age 65 and other, difficulty with IADL is reported by 20%, and difficulty with ADL is reported by 11%; for both, the prevalence increases with age.
prevalence   流行
大于65岁的老人或其它人，IADL困难报导为20%，ADL困难报导为11%；随年龄增加两个都困难成为普遍现象。

People who have difficulty with tasks of IADL and ADL are at high risk of becoming dependent.
IADL和ADL困难的人处于不能自理演变的高风险中。

Of persons older than age 65, 5% reside in nursing homes, largely as a result of dependency in IADL and/or ADL secondary to severe disease.
reside   居住    nursing home  疗养院
小于65岁的老人中，5%住在疗养院里，大多数是严重疾病后依赖IADL和ADL的结果。

Generally, woman live more years with disability, whereas men who become similarly disabled are more likely to die at a younger age.
一般来说，同样的能力不足，男性常死得更年轻，女性比男性能多活几年。

Although physical disability is primarily a result of chronic diseases and geriatric conditions, its onset and severity are modified by other factors, including treatments that control the underlying diseases, physical activity, nutrition, and smoking.
primarily   首先、起初、主要、、根本    onset    进攻、有力的开始、发作
虽然身体能力不足是慢性疾病和年老状态的一个主要结果，它的发生和严重程度被其它因素影响着，包括基础疾病的治疗和控制、身体锻炼、营养和吸烟。

Many intervention trials indicate that disability can be prevented or its severity decreased; one trial showed improvements in functioning with resistance and aerobic exercise in older adults with osteoarthritis of the knee.
aerobic exercise   有氧运动   osteoarthritis   骨关节炎
许多干预试验揭示能力不足可预防或减轻；一个试验显示膝骨关节炎老年人用对抗运动和有氧运动改善了功能。

Occult and Obscure Gastrointestinal Bleeding   Page 60
occult 神秘的、秘密的、隐蔽的   obscure  黑暗的、模糊的、隐匿的
隐匿性和来源不明性胃肠道出血   第60页

Occult bleeding is defined as the detection of asymptomatic blood loss from the gastrointestinal tract, generally by routine fecal occult blood testing (FOBT) or the presence of iron deficiency anemia.
fecal 排泄物、残渣
隐匿性出血指的是无症状性胃肠道出血，一般通过常规的大便隐血试验（ FOBT）或存在着缺铁性贫血发现。

Obscure gastrointestinal bleeding is defined as bleeding of unknown origin that persists or recurs after a negative initial endoscopic evaluation of both the upper and lower gastrointestinal tracts.
initial 开始的、最初的  evaluation 评价
来源不明性胃肠出血是指首次上、下消化管内窥镜检查都阴性、原发部位不明的持续或反复性出血。

Both of these entities may be presentations of recurrent or chronic bleeding.
entity 实体、存在、本质   presentation 提出、表现、存在
两者都可能表现为反复的或慢性的出血。

The initial approach to evidence of occult gastrointestinal blood loss should be endoscopic evaluation.
对隐匿性胃肠道出血，应该使用内窥镜进行早期检查。

In the setting of an isolated positive FOBT, colonoscopy is indicated as the first test.
colonoscopy 结肠镜
只有单纯大便隐血试验阳性的情况下，结肠镜作为首选的检查方法是有适应征的。

The yield of colonoscopy in these patients is approximately 2% for cancer and 30% for one or more colonic polyps.
yield 产出、结出、产生
这些病人结肠镜的结果大约2%是癌症，30%是单发或多发的结肠息肉。

The initial approach to a patient with iron deficiency anemia depends on the presence of symptoms referable to either the upper or lower gastrointestinal tract.
referable 可认为与...有关的、可参考的
缺铁性贫血病人的早期检查方法要根据存在的症状是提示上消化道还是下消化道。

Regardless of the findings on the initial upper or lower endoscopic examination, all patients should have both upper and lower endoscopy because the complementary endoscopic examination has a yield of 6% even if the first one was positive.
complementary 补充的、互补的   positive 确定的、绝对的、真实的
无论首次上消化道或下消化道内窥镜检查会有何发现，所有病人两个检查都应该做，因为互补的内窥镜检查有6%的再发现，即使第一次检查是阳性的。

For premenopausal women, a positive FOBT requires full evaluation, as does iron deficiency anemia.
premenopausal 绝经前的
对绝经前妇女，大便隐血试验阳性需要全面分析，缺铁性贫血也一样。

Barium radiographs of the upper and lower gastrointestinal tract have limited utility in the setting of occult bleeding because of their inability to biopsy or treat lesions that are identified.
utility 实用、效用、通用
隐匿性出血时，上、下消化道的钡剂造影应用有限，因为它们不能活检或治疗发现的病损。

The evaluation of obscure gastrointestinal bleeding is often frustrating
frustrating 令人泄气的、令人沮丧的
原因不明性胃肠道出血的诊断常常令人沮丧。

Angiodysplasia is the most common cause in most recent series.
Angiodysplasia 血管发育畸形
血管发育畸形是最近病例统计中最常见的病因。

Initial endoscopic examination should focus on any symptoms reported by the patient.
focus 聚焦、集中、明确
首次内窥镜检查要关注病人诉说的任何症状。

Potential causative agents, such as NSAIDs and aspirin, should be discontinued.
causative 成为原因的
NSAIDs 非甾体类抗炎镇痛药non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs
能成为潜在病因的药物，如非甾体类抗炎镇痛药和阿斯匹林，应该停用。

Disorders associated with bleeding, such as hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (Osler-Weber-Rendu syndrome), inflammatory bowel disease, or a bleeding diathesis should be considered.
telangiectasia 毛细血管扩张   diathesis 素质
伴有出血的疾病，像遗传性出血性毛细血管扩张症（Osler-Weber-Rendu综合症）、炎症性肠疾病、或出血性体质应该加以考虑。

A repeat endoscopic evaluation may be appropriate, because approximately one third of cases reveal a cause of bleeding overlooked during the initial endoscopy.
内窥镜重复检查可能是需要的，因为接近三分之一病例查出了首次内窥镜漏掉的出血原因。

When upper endoscopy and colonoscopy are both unrevealing, evaluation of the small bowel is indicated.
当上消化道内窥镜和结肠镜均无发现时，应该对小肠进行检查。

Radiographic evaluation of the small bowel is noninvasive but relatively insensitive, with a less than 6% yield from small bowel follow-through and a 10 to 21% yield from enteroclysis.
insensitive 感觉迟钝的    follow-through 持久的贯彻，持续   enteroclysis  小肠造影
小肠X线检查是非侵入性的，但相对不灵敏，小肠全片不到6%有发现，小肠造影10～21％有结果。

By comparison, the diagnostic yield of endoscopic enteroscopy of the small bowel in obscure gastrointestinal bleeding is 38 to 75%.
enteroscopy 肠镜检查
相比较，对来源不明性胃肠道出血小肠内窥镜的诊断结果是38～75%。

Traditional videoendoscopes can evaluate only the proximal small bowel (≤150cm), whereas longer scopes, which are passed though the entire small bowel and then withdrawn while visualizing the mucosa (sonde enteroscopy), are limited in their ability to visualize the entire mucosa and cannot be used to perform diagnostic or therapeutic maneuvers.
proximal 最接近的、近侧的   visualize 使看得见，想像   sonde 探空火箭、探子、探针
传统的电视内窥镜只能检查近端小肠(≤150cm)，然而能通过整个小肠边退边看肠粘膜的更长内镜，也不能看到整个肠粘膜，不能作为常规的诊断或治疗手段。

When endoscopic evaluation does not detect the cause of blood loss, radiographic procedures such as scintigraphy and angiography should be considered.
scintigraphy 闪烁显像
当内窥镜检查不能发现出血病因，像闪烁造影和血管造影等影像学手段应该考虑。

Provocative angiography using heparin or thrombolytic agents has been suggested by some authorities, but this approach has the potential risk of precipitating major bleeding.
Provocative 刺激的、挑拔的、气人的   precipitating 使突然发生、促使
虽然使用肝素或溶栓药的刺激性血管造影被某些专家推荐，但这种方法有促发大出血的潜在风险。

In the face of continued blood loss and no identified etiology, intraoperative endoscopy may provide simultaneous diagnosis and therapy.
simultaneous 同时发生的、同时存在的
碰到进行性出血查不到病因，应用术中肠镜可以同时进行诊断和治疗。

During the procedure, the surgeon plicates the bowel over the endoscope.
plicate 有褶的;有皱襞的
操作时，外科医生把小肠套到内窥镜上。

As the scope is withdrawn, endoscopic findings can be identified for surgical resection or treatment.
内镜退出时，内镜的发现可以决定是外科切除或保守治疗。

The yield of this procedure exceeds 70%.
这个措施70%以上有结果。

In some clinical situations, the site of bleelding cannot be identified, and the patient requires long-term transfusion therapy.
long-term 长期的    transfusion 输血
某些临床病例，出血部位无法发现，病人而要长期输血治疗。

A new device for visualizing the entire gastrointestinal mucosa consists of a small camera in an ingestable capsule that transmits images to receivers attached to the patient’s abdomen and mapped to identify the location of the image.
ingestable 能咽下、能吸收   camera 照相机、电视摄像机
一种新的装置能显示全部胃肠粘膜，这种装置由一颗装有小型摄像机能咽下的胶囊组成，它将（数字）影像信号传到附着在病人腹部的接收器，并绘制出图像来识别影像的位置。

The diagnostic yield of capsule enteroscopy is not yet clear, but this approach may potentially visualize segments of the small bowel that were previously inaccessible.
potentially 潜在的、可能的   inaccessible 达不到的、难接近的
胶囊小肠镜的诊断效率现在还不清楚，但是，这种方法可能显示出以前难以接近的小肠肠管。

No therapeutic maneuvers are possible with the device.
但这个装置不可能有任何治疗性操作。

Chapter 23    Diabetic Nephropathy   Page 67
第二十三章  糖尿病肾病   第67页
End-stage renal disease (ESRD) from diabetic nephropathy is a major cause of morbidity and mortality, particularly in patients with type 1 diabetes, affecting 30 to 35% of patients in the United States.
nephropathy    肾病
由糖尿病性肾病所发展的晚期肾病（EARD）是人类患病和死亡的一个主要原因，特别是患有1型糖尿病的病人，在美国涉及30~35%的病人。

Although nephropathy is about one half as frequent in type 2 diabetics (partially due to a shortened life expectancy), type 2 diabetes still makes up the vast majority of diabetic patients seeking therapy for ESRD.
expectancy   期望、预期  make up   补足、编造、组成
尽管2型糖尿病（特别是影响寿命的）的肾病发生率大约是一半，但2型糖尿病仍然是需要治疗晚期肾病的糖尿病病人的绝大多数。
Overall, diabetes is the leading cause of ESRD in the United states,  accounting for more than one third of cases.
overall   总体来说    accounting for  说明、证明、对…负责
总的来说，糖尿病是美国晚期肾病的首要病因，占三分之一以上。

Details are less clear in patients with type 2 diabetes, but the natural history of diabetic nephropathy in type 1 diabetes is well described.
2型糖尿病病人（肾病）的细节不是很清楚，但1型糖尿病肾病的自然病程已有充分的描述。
The period immediately following diagnosis is best characterized by glomerular hyperfiltration.
glomerular    肾小球的    hyperfiltration    超过滤
紧接诊断后的一段时期以肾小球超过滤最具有特征。
During this time, there is renal hypertrophy, increased renal blood flow, increased glomerular volume, and an increased transglomerular pressure gradient, all contributing to a rise in GFR.
hypertrophy  肥大    gradient   坡度、梯度    GFR  glomerular filtration rate 肾小球滤过率
在这段时间中，有肾脏肥大、肾血流增加、肾小球容积增大和经肾小球的压力梯度增加，这些都与肾小球滤过率增加有关。

Importantly, these changes depend at least in part on hyperglycemia, as they are diminished by intensive diabetes treatment.
hyperglycemia 高血糖    intensive 加强的，密集的
重要的是，这些变化至少是部分依靠高血糖，因为通过有力的糖尿病治疗它们会消失。

Three to 5 years after diagnosis, early glomerular lesions appear, characterized by thickening of glomerular basement membranes, mesangial matrix expansion, and arteriolosclerosis.
mesangial   肾小球系膜的    matrix   母体、基础
诊断后的3~5年，早期的肾小球损害出现，以肾小球基底膜增厚、系膜基底扩张和小动脉硬化为特征。

Albumin excretion remains low during early glomerular changes; however, as pathologic changes mount, the glomeruli lose their functional integrity, resulting in glomerlar filtration defects and increased glomerular permeability.
Albumin 白蛋白    mount   骑上、进行攻击  增长    integrity   完整、完善
defect   缺点、缺陷    permeability    渗透性
在肾小球变化早期白蛋白排泄仍然较低，但是，病理变化进行着，肾小球失去完善的功能，引起肾小球滤过的缺陷，肾小球渗透性增加。

Although results of routine tests of renal function (creatinine and urinalysis) still remain normal, microalbuminuria (30 to 300 mg/day) appears.
尽管肾功能的常规化验（肌酐和尿检）结果还是正常，但微白蛋白尿（30~300毫克／天）已经出现。

Systemic hypertension is also present at this time in more than 50% of cases.
在这个时期，50%以上的病例还出现高血压。

After several years, most diabetic patients exhibit diffuse glomerulosclerosis, although a minority have pathognomonic Kimmelsteil-wilson nodular lesions .
exhibit 展示、陈列    diffuse 扩散、传播    glomerulosclerosis 肾小球硬化症
pathognomonic  特异病征性的
数年以后，大多数糖尿病病人显示不断扩展的肾小球硬化，尽管只有少数病人有特异性的Kimmelsteil-wilson小结。

Although pathologic changes continue to mount throughout the disease, glomerulosclerosis extensive enough to cause ESRD develops in a minority of patients; in these cases, overt albuminuria (>300 mg/day) begins approximatedly 15 years after diagnosis.
overt  明显的、公然的
尽管病理变化在整个病程中是持续发展的，只有少部分病人的肾小球硬化范围大到足以引起晚期肾病，这些病例中，明显的白蛋白尿（>300mg/天）大约在诊断后15年开始。

Soon after, following a variable period on the order of 3 to 5 years, the GFR begins a relentless decline (≥10 ml/min/year), which is eventually reflected by an increase in serum creatinine.
on the order of  属于…一类的、与…相似的    relentless   残忍的、不留情面的
之后，接着一个易变的时期，约需3~5年，肾小球滤过率开始极度下降（≥10毫升/分/年），最终以血清肌酐浓度增高表现出来。

The appearance of massive proteinuria and the nephrotic syndrome is common in this context and often heralds progression to ESRD.
nephrotic syndrome  肾病综合症    context  环境、背境、上下文
herald    传令、预示、预报    progression    进行、前进、进展
到了这样的病变，大量蛋白尿和肾病综合症的出现是常见的，常预示晚期肾病的进展。

Once the serum creatinine rises (reflecting an approximately 50% decline in GFR), ESRD develops in most patients within 10 years.
potentially 潜在的、可能的    inaccessible 达不到的、难接近的
一旦血清肌酐浓度增高（反映肾小球滤过率约下降50%），多数病人10年内发展成晚期肾病。

This course is highly variable, houever, particularly in type 2 diabetics, who may exhibit moderate proteinuria for several years without a substantial deterioration of renal function.
deterioration  变化、退化、恶化
但是，这个过程是非常易变的，特别是2型糖尿病，可以出现许多年的中等蛋白尿而不发生实质性的肾功能恶化。

A simple but useful method of monitoring progression to renal failure is to plot the reciprocal of the seum creatinine as a function of time.
plot  小块地皮、地基、用图标出、阴谋    reciprocal  相互的、倒数、互补
一个简单而实用的肾功能衰竭进展的监测方法是用图表记录血清肌酐的倒数作为当时的肾功能。

This technique allows better assesssment of both therapeutic interventions and the time when renal replacement therapy will become necessary.
potentially 潜在的、可能的    inaccessible 达不到的、难接近的
这个技术使治疗性干预和肾移植时机的判断更为准确。

Chapter 41   Diagnosis of Sudden Cardic Death(SCD)  Page 118
第四十一章   心源性猝死的诊断  第118页

SCD is death due to instantaneous, unanticipated circulatory collapse within 1 hour of initial symptoms and is often, but not always,  due to a cardiac arrhythmia.
instantaneous    瞬间的、即刻的、即时的    unanticipated  不曾预料到的
心源性猝死是指出现初始症状1小时内预料不到的循环衰竭死亡，常是，但不全是心律失常致。

More than 70% of all sudden natural deaths have a cardiac cause, and 80% of these are attributable to coronary artery disease.
attributable    可归于┄的
70%以上的自然猝死有心脏的原因，心脏原因中80%跟冠状动脉疾病有关。

In assessing prognosis and planning a treatment strategy, it is useful to classify SCD as either primary (without a clear trigger) or secondary.
strategy    策略、战略    trigger    触发、引起
在估计预后和制定治疗方案时，将心源性猝死分为原发性（无明确的诱发因素）或继发性是实用的。

A primary episode has a 10 to 30% 1-year recurrence rate, whereas most secondary episodes are associated with recurrence rates of less than 2%.
episode     一段情节、插曲、有趣的事    associated with    联合
原发性发作的在1年内有10~30的复发率，而大多数继发性的复发率小于2%。

Identifiable reversible precipitants of secondary ventricular fibrillation (VF) include transient ischemia possibly related to vasospasm; hypokalemia resulting from diuretics; hyperkalimia secondary to renal failure, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, prostaglandin inhibitors,or potassium-sparing diuretics; proarrhythmia secondary to antiarrhythmics, tricyclics, and antihistamines; or substance abuse with drugs such as cocaine and amphetamines.
identifiable    可确认的    reversible    可逆的    precipitant    仓促的、突然的
transient     短暂的、瞬时的
hypokalemia    低钾血症    angiotensin-converting enzyme血管紧张素转化酶
prostaglandin    前列腺素   sparing   节俭的、保守的
proarrhythmia    致心律失常作用    tricyclic    三环的、三环分子
antihistamine    抗组织胺类
abuse    滥用、陋习    amphetamine    安非他明、苯异丙胺
已知的可逆性继发性心室颤动（VF）的发作包括可能是血管痉挛性的短暂缺血；利尿剂引起的低钾血症；肾功能衰竭、血管紧张素转化酶抑制因子、前列腺素抑制因子、或保钾利尿剂所致的高钾血症；抗心律失常药、三环类药和抗组胺类药引起的心律失常；或可卡因或安非他明类药物的滥用。

Therapy is directed toward removing or treating the acute precipitant.
removing    消除
治疗是直接消除或处理急性发作。

SCD related to acute ischemia in the absence of prior MI often is associated with severe proximal occlusive disease, normal left ventricular function, normal signal-averaged ECG, and noninducibility [absence of ventricular tachycardia (VT) ]during electrophysiologic study.
MI   myocardial infarction 心肌梗死    average  平均    inducibility  可诱导的
缺乏心肌梗死前兆的急性缺血性心源性猝死经常与严重的近端梗阻性疾病有关，这种病人左心室功能正常，心电图信号正常普通，电生理研究时无法诱异VT（缺乏室性心动过速）。

Most patients should undergo comprehensive evaluation of myocardial function and coronary anatomy.
undergo     经历、忍受     comprehensive全面的、广泛的，能充分理解的
大多数病人应该进行全面的心肌功能评价和冠状动脉解剖结构检查。

Echocardiography is useful for excluding hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and valvular heart disease;
echocardiography 超声心动图    hypertrophic cardiomyopathy  肥厚性心肌病
超声心动图对肥厚性心肌病和瓣膜性心脏病在内的疾病很有用；

magnetic resonance imaging, for diagnosing arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia;
magnetic resonance imaging    磁共振    dysplasia    发育异常、结构异常
磁共振对有心律失常性右室发育不良症的诊断很有用；

and myocardial biopsy, for identifying infiltrative diseases such as myocarditis, amyloidosis, hemochromatosis, and sarcoidosis.
infiltrative    渗透性的、浸润性的    amyloidosis    淀粉样变
hemochromatosis    血色素沉着    sarcoidosis     结节病
心肌活检对浸润性疾病如心肌炎、淀粉样变、结节病很有用。

Coronary angiography shoule be performed to assess for the presence of coronary occlusive disease and to exclude coronary artery anomalies.
应进行冠状动脉血管造影评估冠脉阻塞性疾病的存在并排除冠脉的结构异常。

Myocardial perfusion scintigraphy provides complementary data for assessing ischemic burden.
myocardial perfusion scintigraphy    心肌灌注闪烁照相术
心肌灌注闪烁照相术对缺血程度估计可提供辅助资料。

Left ventricular function can be assessed by contrast ventriculography, radionuclide ventriculography, or echocardiography.
ventriculography  心室造影术   radionuclide ventriculography  放射性核素心室显像术
通过对比心室造影、同位素心室造影或超声心动图可以了解左心室功能。

Evaluation of SCD survivors also includes Holter monitoring and/or electrophysiologic testing.
Holter monitoring    动态心电图监护仪
对心源性猝死生还者的测试也包括动态心电图监护仪和/或电生理测试。

The Electrophysiological Study Versus Electrocardiographic Monitoring (ESVEM) trial showed, however, a 50% 2-year recurrence of ventricular tachyarrhythmias in patients in whom antiarrhythnmic drugs successfully suppressed PVCs.
ventricular tachyarrhythmias 室性快速型心律失常
PVCs  premature ventricular contraction 室性早搏
但是，电生理研究与心电图监测对比的试验显示，用抗心律失常药物成功控制的室性早搏病人2年内50%复发快速型室性心律失常。

These data suggest a dissociation between PVC suppression and recurrence of VT; PVCs may represent a marker of left ventricular dysfunction rather than a trigger of SCD, or the arrhythmogenic substrate may change over time.
dissociation   分裂、分离    substrate   底层、底物、基础
这些资料提示室性早搏的控制和室性心动过速的复发是无关的；室早可能是代表左室功能紊乱的一个信号，而不是心源性猝死的触发因素，或心律不齐的基础病因可能因时间而改变。

In SCD survivors, sustained monomorphic ventricular tachycardia is inducible by electrophysiologic testing in 40 to 50% and polymorphic VT in 10 to 20%; in 30 to 50%,no sustained arryhthmia is induced.
sustaine    持继不变、相同、维持    monomorphic   单一同态的、单形的
在心源性猝死生还者中， 40~50%电生理试验能诱导持续单一型室性心动过速，10~20%能诱导多型的，30~50%不能诱导持续的节律异常。

In patients with ischemic heart disease and left ventricular dysfunction, inducibility of sustained VT carries a poor prognosis.
在伴有缺血性心脏病和左室功能不全的病人中，能诱导持续室性心动过速的预后不良。

A low ejection fraction is associated with a poor prognosis, however, regardless of whether sustained VT is inducible; patients with an ejection fraction of 30% or less and who are noninducible have a 25% arrythmia recurrence rate at 1 year, whereas noninducible patients with an ejection fraction greater than 30 have a 10 to 15% recurrence rate.
ejection fraction    射血分数   
但是，不良预后与低射血分数有关，不管持续室性心动过速是否能诱导，射血分数30%以下的不能诱导者1年时有25%的心律失常复发率，而射血分数大于30%的不能诱导者只有10~15%的复发率。

In patients with SCD and idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy, sustained monomorphic VT is rarely induced.
idiopathic    先天的、初发的、突发的
患有心源性猝死和先天性扩张性心肌病病人中，持续单一型室性心动过速几乎不能诱导。

Neither the inability to induce VT nor the ability of drugs to suppress inducible polymorphic VT or VF is a predictor of a favorable outcome.
administer 执行，实施    normotensive  血压正常
不能诱导室性心动过速不是，用药物能控制的可诱导多形态的室早和室颤也不是良好预后的信号。


        Chapter 22  Shortness of Breath
       
        “shortness of breath”, “a feeling of not being able to get enough air”, and “labored breathing” are all terms used by patients to describe the symptom of dyspnea.
        “气促”“不能呼吸足够空气”和“用力呼吸”是病人描述呼吸困难症状时常用的词。
        Dyspnea 呼吸困难
        The cause of dyspnea may be pulmonary disease, circulatory disease, or both.
        呼吸困难的原因可能是肺部疾病，循环系统疾病或者两者并存。
        Pulmonary肺的
        Circulatory循环
        It is the physician’s responsibility to define the causative mechanisms of shortness of breath so that diagnostic techniques and therapies can be directed appropriately.
        医生应该明确气促的病因以便采用合适的诊断方法和治疗。
        The most consistent correlate of the symptom of dyspnea is increased mechanical work of breathing, usually brought on by increased airway resistance as occurs in asthma, chronic bronchitis, and emphysema, or decreased distensibility of the lungs as occurs in interstitial fibrotic reactions.
        导致呼吸困难症状最大可能是呼吸机械阻力增加，通常可见的是哮喘、慢性支气管炎和肺气肿导致的气道阻力增加或者由于间质纤维化反应导致的肺膨胀性降低。
        Consistent连贯的，一致的
        Distensibility膨胀性
        interstitial fibrotic reactions间质纤维化反应
        In the latter disease, increased effort is required to produce a higher negative pressure in the pleural space to inflate the lungs.
        间质纤维化反应病人需要更大的努力使胸腔负压增加才能保证肺部充气。
        pleural space胸膜腔
        Inflate充气
        The increased mechanical work done on the lungs to overcome obstruction to airflow or decreased distensibility is perceived as an increased effort to breathe and produces the symptom of dyspnea.
        用来克服气道阻塞和膨胀性降低的机械原理的增加就表现出呼吸费力和困难的症状
        An increased drive to ventilate may also cause dyspnea. Such stimuli include hypoxia, usually when arterial oxygen tensions are less than 60 mmHg, and stimuli from inflamed lung parenchyma, as occur in bacterial pneumonia or alveolitis and that drive the respiratory centers of the brain.
        Ventilate通气
        Hypoxia缺氧
        arterial oxygen tensions动脉血氧张力
        通气需求的增加也会导致呼吸困难。这类刺激包括了缺氧，通常动脉血氧张力低于60mmHg,或者见于细菌性肺炎或者肺泡炎导致的肺实质炎症促使脑部呼吸中心增加通气需求。
        These stimuli often lower the resting carbon dioxide pressure (Pco2) to less than the normal level of 40 mmHg and cause dyspnea, especially on mild exertion.
        尤其在轻度体力负荷情况下，这些刺激通常使静止二氧化碳压力（Pco2）降低在正常的40mmHg以下。
        Patients with pulmonary emboli may present with shortness of breath and a normal chest roentgenogram.
        chest roentgenogram.胸部X线片
        肺栓塞病人也可能出现气促，但是胸部X线片表现正常。
        However, the inefficiency of the embolized lung for gas exchange, characterized by an enlarged deadspace, requires abnormally high ventilatory rates to maintain a normal arterial Pco2.
        但是肺栓塞使死腔扩大，气体交换不充分，从而需要高频率的通气以保证动脉Pco2维持在正常水平。
        Unless this particular presentation of pulmonary embolism is appreciated, embolic disease goes unrecognized in many patients until they suddenly die or are extremely incapacitated by pulmonary hypertension and right ventricular failure.
        除非有特殊的临床表现，很多肺栓塞病人很难发现直至出现突然死亡或者由于肺性高血压或右心室衰竭而导致的极度功能障碍。
        Because of the high prevalence of heart disease and heart failure in the general population, many patients with dyspnea have cardiac abnormalities.
        由于心脏疾病和心衰的高发，很多呼吸困难的病人有心功能的异常。
        The basis of the dyspnea is usually a high filling pressure of the left ventricle, which cuases high left atrial pressures and high pulmonary capillary and pulmonary arterial pressures, which in turn increase the pulmonary blood volume and reduce lung compliance.
        呼吸困难的基础通常是左心室充盈压增高导致肺毛细血管和肺动脉压的增加，从而肺血流量提高，肺顺应性降低。
        If the pulmonary capillary wedge pressure is in the range of 25 mmHg, capillary fluid transudates into the pulmonary matrix, thereby reducing lung compliance, increase the work of breathing, and causing dyspnea.
        如果肺毛细血管楔压在25mmHg左右，毛细血管液就会漏出至肺基质，从而降低了肺顺应性，导致呼吸用力增加，引起呼吸困难。
        Echocardiography is usually diagnostic of abnormal ventricular or valvular function and should be performed in any patient in whom the cause of dyspnea is not readily apparent.
        超声心动图通常被用来诊断心室和瓣膜异常，对任何呼吸困难病因不明确的病人均可采用。
Chapter 28  Surgical complications
        Postoperative surgical complications represent one of the most frustrating and difficult occurrences experienced by surgeons who do a significant volume of surgery.
        Frustrating无效的，挫折的
        外科术后并发症是经验丰富的外科医生最困扰和最难对付的困扰之一。
        Regardless of how technically gifted, bright, and capable a surgeon is, surgical complications are a virtually guaranteed aspect of life.
        Virtually事实上
        不管外科医生有多大的能力，技术高超，聪明智慧，外科并发症 也很难免。
        The cost of surgical complications in the United States today runs into millions of dollars and is associated with lost work productivity, disruption of normal family life, and unanticipated stress to employers and society in general.
        当前美国的外科术后并发症浪费了无数的金钱，同时导致劳动能力的丧失，正常家庭生活的破坏，而且为雇主和社会带来了无法预料的压力。
        Frequently, the functional results of the operation are compromised by complication; in some cases, the patient never recovers to the preoperative level of function.
        通常术后并发症影响了手术的效果，某些病人无法恢复到术前的功能状态。
        The most significant and difficult part of complications is the suffering borne by the patient who enters the hospital anticipating an uneventful operation but is left suffering and compromised by the complication.
        最严重和难对付的并发症就是看到那些本以为进行安全性很高的手术，结果却导致了术后的痛苦和并发症。
        Complications can occur for a variety of reasons.
        外科并发症的发生有多种原因。
        A surgeon can perform a technically perfect operation in a patient who is severely compromised by the disease process and still have a complication.
        有时，外科医生手术技术上非常成功，但病人的病情严重可导致并发症的发生。
        Similarly, a surgeon who is sloppy, is careless, or hurries through an operation can make technical errors that account for the operative complications.
        同样，手术中医生的马虎、粗心或仓促都可以导致技术上的错误从而导致手术并发症
        Finally, the patient can be doing well nutritionally, have an operation performed meticulously, and yet suffer a complication because of the nature of the disease.
        即使病人营养状况良好，手术也很成功，疾病本身也可导致并发症的产生。The possibility of postoperative complications is a part of every surgeon’s thought processes-something with which all surgeons will be required to deal.
        手术后并发症的可能性是每一个外科医生考虑治疗计划的一个组成部分，因为所有外科医生都将面临这些并发症中的一部分。
        Surgeons can do much to avoid complications by the careful preoperative screening process.
        外科医生可以在术前进行精心筛选以避免术后并发症。
        When the surgeon sees the potential surgical candidate the first time, a host of questions come to mind, such as the nutritional status of the patients and questions about the health of the heart and lungs.
        a host of许许多多，一大堆
        当外科医生第一次见到即将手术的病人时，需要考虑很多问题，如这个病人的营养状况或者心肺功能是否正常。
        The surgeon will make a decision regarding performing the correct operation for the appropriate disease.
        外科医生需要为病人作出正确的手术方式选择。
        Similarly, the timing of the operation is often an important issue
        同样的，手术时机也是一个重要的因素。
        Some operations can be performed in a purely elective fashion, whereas others have some urgency about an expeditious surgical solution.
        Expeditious迅速地，敏捷地
        一些手术可以择期进行，而有些可能需要进行急诊手术。
        Occasionally, the surgeon will demand that the patient lost weight before the operation so that the likelihood of a successful outcome is improved.
        有时候，外科医生会要求病人术前减轻体重以提高手术的成功率。
        Occasionally, the wise surgeon will request preoperative consultation from a cardiologist or pulmonary specialist to make certain that patient will be able to tolerate the stresses of a particular procedure.
        有时，明智的外科医生会请心脏或呼吸系统专家进行术前会诊以确定病人是否能耐受特定手术。
Chapter 4 Palliative care and hospice of dying patients临终病人的姑息治疗和临终关怀
        阅读提示：本篇篇名为临终病人的姑息治疗和临终关怀。现代医学的进步，可以做到延长生命，减轻病痛，但现代医疗技术和条件还不能达到医治百病的水平。当患者的病情处于不可逆转的状态时，一般观念下的治疗已毫无意义。所以患者临终需要关怀，这样可以最大限度地减轻生命垂危者的生理和心理痛苦。因此，如何对待临终病人，帮助他们减轻痛苦，也是医务人员需要掌握的一门艺术。本篇主要介绍姑息治疗和临终关怀的概念以及具体内容。
        State-of-the-art end-of-life care is synonymous with palliative care, a term describing comprehensive (physical, psychosocial, and spiritual), interdisciplinary services that focus on alleviating suffering and promoting quality of life for patients and their families facing a life-threatening or terminal illness.
        State-of-the-art最高级的
        end-of-life终末期
        Synonymous同义的，同类的
        Disciplinary学科的  inter- 相互的
        姑息性治疗是指终末期病人的临终关怀，是一种全面多学科(生理、社会心理和精神方面)交互的服务，旨在针对频临死亡或终末期病人或家属以减轻病痛提高生活质量。
        The term palliative literally means “to clock” and can be used derisively to describe measures that merely cover up a problem, but the term has become widely accepted as a description of approaches to providing comfort for dying persons without necessarily modifying the underlying medical condition(e.g., reducing pain or dyspnea from metastatic lung cancer without affecting the tumor burden).
        Derisively：嘲笑的，嘲弄的
        从字面上理解，palliative是指时钟，通常用来讽刺仅表面掩盖问题的措施，但该词常被广泛地用来描述针对垂死病人采取的减轻痛苦，而不改变其基础疾病状态的方法（如针对转移性肺癌采取镇痛和减轻呼吸困难而不去影响肿瘤负荷）
        Many aspects of palliative care, as with any specialty, are relevant to the general practice of medicine and to all clinicians who tend to dying persons.
        relevant to有关的
        姑息性治疗的特性通常与药物治疗和所有治疗临终病人的医生相关的。
        Palliative care has a role in the earliest phases of a life-threatening illness but assumes a more prominent or even dominant role in the final 3 to 6 months of common terminal conditions: advanced cancer, heart and lung failure, end-stage liver and renal disease, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, and life-limiting neurologic diseases.
        Prominent显著的，突出的
        姑息性治疗可以用于临终病人的早期治疗，但其最重要和突出的使用是针对终末期的最后3至6个月时间:如患有晚期癌症、心肺衰竭、晚期肝肾疾病，艾滋病和致命的神经系统疾病的病人。
        Hospice programs offer a widely recognized form of palliative care in the United States. Hospice in the United States refers to a specific, government-regulated form of end-of-life care, first available under Medicare but then adopted by Medicaid and many third-party insurers.
        美国临终关怀计划提供了一系列经过广泛认可的姑息性治疗方案。美国的临终关怀是指政府管理的专业性终末期治疗系统，初期在医疗机构治疗，尔后可转医疗互助机构或第三方保险机构。
        Hospice care typically is given at home or in a nursing home-less commonly in an acute care hospital or specialized acute care unit-and is provided by an interdisciplinary team, which usually includes a physician, nurse, social worker, chaplain, volunteers, bereavement coordinator, and home health aides, all of whom work with the primary care physician, patient, and family.
        Interdisciplinary各学科的
        Chaplain牧师
        Bereavement丧亲
        临终关怀通常是在（病人）住所或家庭护理中心进行，而不是紧急医护医院或特殊的急症监护病房，实施临终关怀的人员包括相关学科的团队，通常有医生，护士，社会工作者，牧师，自愿者，负责丧葬组织和家庭医生，这些人与初级护理人员、病人和家庭形成了临终关怀团队
        Bereavement services are offered to the family for a year after the death.
        丧亲服务可以延续至病人死后一年的时间。
        Hospice regulation in the United States require that a patient agree to forgo measures with curative intent and focus on comfort.
        美国临终关怀的规定要求病人必须同意放弃治疗意向，而关注（死前的）安慰。
        Although hospice programs vary in their policies, many “aggressive”, expensive interventions, such as surgery, radiation therapy, total parenteral nutrition, and transfusions, tend to be excluded.
        虽然临终关怀项目政策各异，但是一般不包括许多超常规的，昂贵治疗，如外科手术，放射治疗，全胃肠营养和输血。
        To many patients and families, hospice seems to signify “giving up”, rather than being viewed as a model of compassionate care and of making the best of a situation with limited options.
        Compassionate同情，怜悯
        对很多病人和家庭来说，临终关怀更像一种“放弃”，而不是怜悯和在有限选择最好结果的手段。
        Also, to be eligible for a Medicare-certified hospice program, the primary physician must certify that the patient is likely to die within 6 months if the illness runs its usual course.
        Eligible合适的
        同时需要注意的是，一个经过医疗机构认可的临终关怀计划只适用于经初诊医生按照疾病常规转归确定，只有6个月以内的生存期的病人。
        No penalties exist, however, for referring a patient too early to hospice, and physicians generally use hospice care much later in the course of an illness than appropriate.
        但是，如果一个病人过早进行临终关怀，其损失是无法弥补的，因此临终关怀通常比正常时机会推迟很多。
        Another option is palliative care in inpatient units, which are furnished in a homelike fashion; are quieter than the typical noisy hospice ward; are decorated with personally important objects from each patient; and typically lack, minimize, or obscure hospital paraphernalia.
        Paraphernalia个人用品
        姑息治疗最好的选择是在装修成家庭风格的住院病区进行以避免过多的嘈杂，通常应使用病人个人重要物品进行妆点，而尽量避免、减少过多的医院风格。
        Patients are encouraged to wear their own clothes, pets are allowed, and families (including children) have unlimited visiting privileges and are encouraged to stay overnight and to cook there or bring food.
        鼓励病人穿着自身衣服，允许携带宠物，家庭成员（包括孩子）有无限制的探视特权，鼓励他们夜间陪护，提供烹调设施或允许携带食物。

Chapter 25 Cancer of Unknown Primary Origin原发灶不明的肿瘤
        阅读提示：本篇篇名为原发灶不明的肿瘤。以转移性病灶为首发症状的恶性肿瘤在临床上时有发生，而其中一部分的原发肿瘤是难以检测到的。本篇主要介绍原发灶不明肿瘤的定义、病因、发病率以及临床和病理学上的评估等。
Definition
        The first signs or symptoms of cancer are frequently due to metastases to visceral or nodal sites.
        Metastases转移
        Visceral内脏
        肿瘤首发症状和体征通常是由于脏器或淋巴结转移引起的。
        In most such patients, routine clinical evaluation with a comprehensive history, physical examination, complete blood cell count, screening chemistries, and directed radiologic evaluation of specific symptoms or signs identifies the primary tumor.
        对此类 病人，需要进行常规临床检查和全面的病史回顾、体格检查、全血计数、生化筛查和对特定症状体征进行放射学检查以确定原发病灶。
        Patients who have no primary tumor located after this routine clinical evaluation are defined as having cancer of  unknown primary site.
        经过常规临床检查后不能发现原发病灶的被称为原发灶不明的肿瘤。
        Further clinical and pathologic evaluation will identify the primary site in only a small minority of patients, and about 80% will never have a primary site identified during their subsequent clinical course.
        仅有小部分病人经过进一步的临床和病理检查可以确定原发病灶，约80%的病人在后续的临床诊疗中无法确定原发病灶。
Etiology
        In patients whose primary site of cancer remains undetectable, the primary site presumably has remained small or, less likely, has regressed spontaneously.
        Etiology病因
        Spontaneously自发的
        原发病灶不明的（肿瘤）患者，其原发病灶有可能处于早期，或者也有极少可能已经自行退化。
        Large autopsy series before the routine use of computed tomographic scans or magnetic resonance imaging identified small primary sites of cancer in 85% of patients with previously unidentified primary tumors, usually in the pancreas, lung, and various other gastrointestinal sites; with current use of computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging, however, autopsy series have identified primary sites in only 50 to 70% of patients.
        Autopsy尸检
        在CT和MRI被常规使用之前，尸检可以发现85%先前未能确定早期原发肿瘤病灶，通常位于胰腺、肺和不同的胃肠道部位；进行CT和MRI检查以后，仅有50%-70%的原发病灶可以通过尸检确定。
Incidence
        About 3% of all patients with cancer have metastatic diseases without a known primary site, accounting for about 50000 to 60000 cases per year in the United States.
        大约有3%癌症患者有转移病灶而原发灶不明，美国每年约5万至6万例。
        Cancer of unknown primary site occurs with approximately equal frequently in men and women, and it increases in incidence with advancing age.
        原发灶不明肿瘤发病率男女性差别不大，发病率伴随年龄增长而增长。
Clinical and Pathologic Evaluation
        Since all patients with cancer of unknown primary site have advanced disease, therapeutic nihilism has been common.
        Nihilism虚无主义，极端怀疑论
        由于原发灶不明肿瘤病人往往为晚期病人，治疗效果往往受到质疑。
        However, it is now evident that this heterogeneous group contains subsets of patients with widely diverse prognoses; some cancers are highly responsive to treatment, and some patients may have a substantial chance of achieving long-term survival with appropriate treatment.
        heterogeneous异型的，异质的
        Prognose预后
        Substantial真实的，实在的
        但是，现在比较明确的是这类特殊患者的预后差别很大，一些癌症患者对治疗高度敏感，也有部分患者通过适当治疗生存期很长。
        The initial clinical and pathologic evaluation should therefore focus on identifying a primary site when possible and on identifying patients for whom specific treatment is indicated.
        因此临床和病理检查的出发点应当时寻找原发病灶和识别对特殊治疗有效的患者。
        In the majority of patients with cancer of unknown primary site, the diagnosis of advanced cancer is strongly suspected after the initial history and physical examination.
        通过初期的病史和体格检查，会得到大部分原发病灶不明的癌症患者的原发肿瘤线索。
        A brief additional evaluation, including complete blood cell counts, chemistry profile, and computed tomography of the chest and abdomen should be performed.
        也可以采取附加的检查，如全血细胞计数、血生化和胸腹部CT。
        In addition, specific symptoms or signs should be evaluated with appropriate radiologic and endoscopic studies.
        另外也可采用合适的放射学和内镜也确诊特殊的症状和体征。
        If a primary site is located, management should follow guidelines for the specific cancer identified.
        如果能确定原发病灶，（下一步治疗）应参考原发癌症的治疗指南。
        In patients with no obvious primary site, the most accessible metastatic site should be biopsied.
        如果原发病灶不明确，应对最容易获得的转移病灶进行活检。
        Fine needle aspiration may or may not provide sufficient material for optimal histologic examination and special pathologic procedures.
        细针穿刺获得的组织可能无法满足足够的组织学检测和特殊的病理诊断。
        If tissue is inadequate, a larger biopsy sample should be obtained so that all necessary stains and procedures can be performed.
        如果组织量不足，为了进行必要的染色和诊断必须取得足够的活检标本。

Chapter 30    Epidemic influenza
Page 78
•        An epidemic is an outbreak of influenza confined to one geographic location. In a given community, epidemics of influenza A virus infection often have a characteristic pattern. They usually begin rather abruptly, reach a sharp peak in 2 or 3 weeks, and last 6 to 10 weeks. Increased numbers of schoolchildren with febrile respiratory illness are often the first indication of influenza in community.
•        流行性感冒是指局限于一个地理区域中的感冒的爆发。发生在一个特定社区的A型流感通常具备一个特征型。它们开始阶段非常突然，在2-3周后达到顶峰，并持续6-10周。在校生患发热性呼吸道疾病数量的增多往往是流感在社区开始传播的指征。
•        This indication is soon followed by illnesses among adults and about a week later by increased hospital admissions of patients with influenza-related complications. Hospitalization rates in high-risk persons increase two- to five fold during major epidemics. School and employment absenteeism increases, as does mortality from pneumonia and influenza, especially in older persons. The latter finding is a highly specific indicator of influenza activity.
•        此标志之后就是成年人群内疾病的蔓延和大约一周后增多的患流感相关病症的住院病人。高危人群的住院率在规模较大的流行病期间可达平时的2-5倍。旷课和旷工现象增多，同样的，死于肺炎和流感的人增多，尤其是老年人。后一个发现是流感活动期的特异性标志。
•        Epidemics occur almost exclusively during the winter months in temperate areas, but influenza activity may continue year-round in the tropics. Outbreaks may occur in tour groups (land or ship) and in facilities during summer months, particularly after the appearance of a drift variant. Regional differences in the time and magnitude of occurrence of influenza outbreaks are common. During epidemics, the overall attack rates typically average 5 to 20% in adults.
•        流感几乎总是毫无例外地发生在温带冬季的几个月当中。但流感活性可以在热带持续达整年。夏季中的旅行团体(陆地或者船舶)或其它场所里也可能爆发流感，尤其是在漂移变异出现以后。流感暴发的发生在基于时间以及严重程度上的地域差异是普遍的。通常流行期间典型的成人侵袭率为百分之五到二十。
•        Attack rates of 40 to 50% are not uncommon in closed populations, including those in hospitals and nursing homes, and in certain highly susceptible age groups. Two different strains within a single subtype, two different influenza A subtypes(H1N1 and H3N2), or both influenza A and B viruses may cocirculate. In addition, simultaneous outbreaks of influenza A and respiratory syncytial viruses have been found.
•        在封闭式人群中，侵袭率达到45-50%并不罕见，包括那些住院的和居家的病人以及特定的高度易感年龄组。单一亚型里边的两个毒株，两种流感A型病毒的亚型H1N1和H3N2，或者A、B两种病毒的复合传播。此外，也发现有A型流感病毒和呼吸道合胞体病毒同时爆发的情况.
•        Strains circulating at the end of one season’s epidemic are sometimes responsible for the next season’s outbreak (the so-called herald wave phenomenon). Furthermore, other than the association of influenza outbreaks with colder seasons, the factors that allows an epidemic to develop or those responsible for the tapering off of an epidemic when only some susceptible persons have been infected are unknown.
•        一个季度末流感的病毒株群的传播有时候是导致下一个季度流感暴发的原因（称为预示波现象）。此外，除了流感与寒冷季节之间的关系，导致流感暴发或者流感减少（当只有一些易感人群患病时）的因素尚不清楚。
•        Pneumonia and influenza (P+I)- related deaths fluctuate annually, with peaks in the winter months. When such P+I deaths exceed the predicted number, it is due to influenza A or occasionally to influenza B virus or respiratory syncytial virus activity. Although mortality is greatest during pandemics, substantial total mortality occurs with epidemics. Over 85% of P+I deaths occur among persons aged 65 and older.
•        与肺炎和流感(P+I)相关的死亡每年都在波动，冬季达到高峰。当P+I的死亡超过了预期数值，是由于A型流感或者偶尔因为B型或者呼吸道合胞病毒的活动性所致。尽管大流行的时候病死率最高，普通流行时候的病死率也非常可观。超过85%的P+I死亡发生于65岁以上的人群。
•        Other cardiopulmonary and chronic diseases also result in increased mortality after influenza epidemics, so that overall influenza-associated mortality is about two- to four fold higher than P+I deaths.
•        流感流行之后，其它心肺疾病和慢性病同样导致病死率有所增高，以至于总体流感相关的病死率比P+I导致的病死率高出2-4倍。


Chapter 35   
Principles of ordering imaging tests
•        As a general rule, when confronted with two reasonable alternatives, it is advisable to choose the least expensive, safest, and least uncomfortable imaging examination first. For acute right upper quadrant abdominal pain, ultrasonography is usually the procedure of choice because it is less expensive than CT, primarily because the imaging equipment is cheaper.
•        面临两种合理的供选方案的时候，一个普遍的原则是明智地将最低廉、最安全、最舒适的检查方法做为首选。对急性右上象限的腹痛，超声波检查通常是首选的，因为它比CT (Computerized Tomography)检查要经济，这主要是因为它的设备更便宜。
•        Although ultrasound is more subjective and operator dependent than CT, ultrasound can yield exquisite visualization of the biliary tree, including the gallbladder and the pericholecystic space, in which fluid can be a sign of acute cholecystitis. UItrasonography also confirms or denies the presence of gallstones in the gallbladder with high accuracy that at least equals that of CT, and ultrasonography can detect biliary dilations and masses in the liver and pancreas.
•        尽管超声波检查显得更主观并且比CT对操作人员的依赖性更强，但超声波可产生精美的胆道系统的图像，包括胆囊和胆囊周边部位，这些部位的液体可以作为急性胆囊炎的指征。超声波检查也可以高精度地确诊或者排除胆囊内结石，在这点上它的准确率至少和CT持平。超声波检查可以探测到胆囊扩张以及肝脏和胰腺内的块状物。
•        Ultrasonography works well in the right upper quadrant because there is little bowel gas, which obscures underlying structures on ultrasound but not on CT, and the liver provides an excellent acoustic window for ultrasound visualization of the underlying structures.
•        Ultrasonography can be difficult and suboptimal in patients who are obese or who have a distended abdomen. Ultrasonography is generally less accurate in surveying the remainder of the abdomen, an important issue when the pain is less localized.
•        超声波尤其擅长腹部右上象限的检查，因为这里肠道气体很少，这些气体会使底层结构在超声波下看起来含混不清，而在CT中却无此影响。肝脏的底层结构在超声波下提供了极好的声窗。
•        超声波检查法很难用于检查肥胖或者腹部膨胀的病人，在这种情况下是不适宜采用的。超声波检查在检查腹部其余部位的时候通常缺乏精确性，而当疼痛较广泛的时候这就成为一个重要的问题。
•        How should the choice between CT or ultrasonography be made in a patient who presents with acute abdominal pain? More specifically, when is it appropriate to move directly to CT? In general, if the pain is not biliary in character, is not localized to the right upper quadrant, or occurs in an obese patient, CT is preferred because it often reveals previously unsuspected abnormalities.
•        当遇到表现为急性腹痛的病人，在CT和超声波检查之间该如何选择？更具体地说，什么时候应当直接去做CT？
•        通常来说，如果疼痛是非胆性的，并没有定位于右上象限或发生于肥胖病人，就更适合做CT检查，因为这时候往往提前揭示了难以预料的异常情况。
•        At least three other imaging choices exist: (1) no imaging study; (2) a plain radiographic series of the abdomen (technically and economically similar to the chest radiograph but generally not as useful); (3) MRI of the abdomen or pelvis(usually reserved for more complex situations or after failure to diagnose with other methods). Other than identifying free intraperitoneal air(perforated viscus), gas patterns of bowel obstruction, and radiodense ureteral calculi, the traditional abdominal series, although the least expensive test, is considered generally inferior to CT and has been largely replaced by CT.
•        至少还有其它三种影像学选择存在：1.无影像学研究。2.普通X光腹部照相（技术上和成本上与胸片类似但并不那么有用）3.腹部或骨盆MRI（magnetic resonance imaging ）(通常预留用于较复杂的情况或者其它方法不能给出诊断时)。
•        除了识别腹膜内自由气体(内脏穿孔时)、肠梗阻的气体像以及不透X线的输尿管结石，传统的腹部照相虽然价格最低廉，但与CT相比仍为次选，并已大量为CT所取代。
•        A current-generation multislice helical CT scanner can generate 5-mm sections of the entire abdomen and pelvis in about 1 minute. It is helpful to use oral and intravenous contrast material to opacify (and identify) loops of bowel and vascular structures.
•        一台现阶段的多层螺旋CT可以在一分钟内为整个腹部及骨盆产生5毫米间距的截面图。
•        通过口服或者静脉给予造影剂使得肠道的回路走形和血管结构变得不可通透从而易于辨认，对于CT检查很有帮助。
•        MRI can be useful for the cooperative patient in renal failure who cannot receive intravenous contrast material because it can provide tissue and vascular detail not achievable without contrast-enhanced CT. Patient cooperation is required because of the longer imaging times and respiratory motion artifacts. MRI is also useful in specific situations to image the biliary tree, liver parenchyma, and male and female pelvis.
•        在病人合作的情况下，磁共振对于无法接受静脉造影剂的肾衰病人是有用的，因为它能提供组织和血管的细节，而这些细节不借助增强造影CT就无法看到。因为需要长时间的成像以及呼吸运动伪差，病人的合作对于MRI成像是有必要的。在一些特定情况下，MRI对于胆道系统、肝脏实质以及男性或女性骨盆的成像检查同样是有用的。


Chapter 43   prophylactic antibiotic therapy
•        Prophylactic antibiotic therapy is clearly more effective when begun preoperatively and continued through the intraoperative period, with the aim of achieving therapeutic blood levels throughout the operative period. This produces therapeutic levels of the antibiotic agents at the operative site in any seromas and hematomas that may develop. Antibiotics started as late as 1 to 2 hours after bacterial contamination are markedly less effective, and it is completely without value to start prophylactic antibiotics after the wound is closed. Failure of prophylactic antibiotic agents occurs in part through a neglect of the importance of the timing and dosage of these agents, which are critical determinants.
•        起始于手术前以及持续于手术中的预防性抗生素治疗，对于贯穿整个手术阶段达到抗生素治疗剂量血药浓度显然十分有效。这可以使得在手术区域出现的浆液肿以及血肿中的抗生素达到治疗浓度。
•        抗生素用于细菌污染后1-2小时候则有效性会大大降低，而伤口闭合后进行预防性抗生素治疗已毫无价值。预防性抗生素治疗的失败部分归咎于忽略了时机和给药剂量的重要性，而这两点正是关键的决定性因素。
•        For most patients with elective surgery, the first dose of prophylactic antibiotics should be given intravenously at the time anesthesia is induced. It is unnecessary and may be detrimental to start them more than 1 hour preoperatively, and it is unnecessary to give them after the patient leaves the OR. A single dose, depending on the drug used and length of operation, is often sufficient. For operations that are prolonged, the prophylactic agent chosen should be given in repeated doses at intervals of one to two half-lives for the drugs being used. It is never indicated to give prophylactic antibiotic coverage for more than 12 hours for a planned operation.
•        对大多数进行择期手术的病人来说，预防性抗生素的首剂应当在诱导麻醉开始的时候静脉给予。术前超过一小时给药没有必要甚至有害，病人离开手术室后也没有给予预防性抗生素的必要。依据药物种类和手术时间长短，单剂量给药往往足够了。对延长了时间的手术，应当在间隔1-2个半衰期后重复给予预防性抗生素。对于计划内的手术，从来不主张给予预防性抗生素超过12小时。
•        There is no evidence to support the practice of continuing prophylactic antibiotics until central lines, drains, and/or chest tubes are removed. There is evidence that this practice increases the recovery of resistant bacteria.
•        没有证据支持预防性抗生素需要持续至中央静脉导管、引流管、和/或胸管移除后。证据表明这样治疗会增高耐药菌的复原率。
•        Many patients fail to receive needed prophylactic antibiotics because the system for their administration is complex at the time of multiple events just before a major operation. This problem has been made worse by the trend of admitting patients directly to the OR for planned operations, which intensifies the pressures to accomplish a large number of procedures during a short interval before the operation. The possibility that prophylactic antibiotics will be unintentionally omitted can be minimized by establishing a system with a checklist.
•        许多病人并未给予预防性抗生素，这是由于在一个主要手术前的多种事件中，他们的管理系统过于复杂。由于允许病人直接去手术室进行计划内的手术，这个问题越来越严重，这加剧了手术前短时间内完成大量操作规程的压力。可以通过建立一个带有清单的系统来尽量减少预防性抗生素被无意识遗漏的可能性。
•        One member of the operative team(usually the preoperative nurse or a member of the anesthesia team) should be responsible for initialing a portion of the operative record that states either that the patient received indicated prophylactic antibiotics or that the surgeon has determined that antibiotics are not indicated for the procedure.
•        Many antibiotics effectively reduce the rate of postoperative SSIs when used appropriately for indicated procedures. No antibiotic has been reliably superior to another when each possessed a similar and appropriate antibacterial spectrum.
•        手术组中的一员（通常是术前护士或者麻醉组成员之一）应当负责草签手术记录当中的一部分，以阐明病人是否接受了指定的预防性抗生素或外科医生已经决定不采用抗生素。
•        在指定的进程中应用了恰当的抗生素后，多种抗生素有效地减少了术后手术部位感染（Surgical site infections ,SSIs 的发生率，如果给予的抗生素具有相似并适当的抗菌谱，无论选用哪种，其可靠性都无优劣之分。     inferior to <> superior to
•        The most important determinant is whether the planned procedure is expected to enter parts of the body known to harbor obligate colonic anaerobic bacteria (Bacteroides species). If anaerobic flora are anticipated, such as during operations on the colon or distal ileum or during appendectomy, then an agent effective against Bacteroides species, such as cefotetan, must be used. Cefoxitin is an alternative with a dramatically shorter half-life. If anaerobic flora are not expected, cefazolin is the prophylactic drug of choice.
•        最重要的决定因素是这些计划内的步骤(预防性给予抗生素)能否进入机体中结肠厌氧菌隐匿的已知部位。如果厌氧菌群是预料之中的，诸如结肠、远端回肠手术或者阑尾切除术，那么必须应用对抗拟杆菌属的抗生素如cefotetan头孢替坦。头孢西丁可做为候选药，它的半衰期非常短。如果预计没有厌氧菌，头孢唑啉可做为预防给药的备选药。
•        seroma 浆液肿
•        hematoma 血肿
•        elective surgery 择期手术
•        OR（operating room）手术室
•        Resistant bacteria 耐药菌
•        Antibacterial spectrum抗菌谱
•        Anaerobic厌氧的
•        Bactroides拟杆菌属，类杆菌属
•        Ileum回肠
•        Appendectomy阑尾切除术
•        Cefotetan头孢替坦二钠
•        Cefoxitin头孢西汀
•        Half-life半衰期
•        Cefazolin头孢唑啉

Chapter45  Acute abdomen –decision to operate

•        These difficulties notwithstanding, the surgeon must make a decision to operate or not. Certain indications for surgical treatment exist. For example, definite signs of peritonitis such as tenderness, guarding, and rebound tenderness support the decision to operate. Likewise, severe or increasing localized abdominal tenderness should prompt an operation. Patients with abdominal pain and signs of sepsis that cannot be explained by any other finding should undergo operation.
•        尽管困难至此，外科医生必须决定动还是不动手术。某些外科治疗的适应症是存在的。例如，具有腹膜炎的明确指征，如压痛、防卫姿势、反跳痛的时候，支持手术。同样地，严重的或者持续增强的局限性的腹部压痛应当立刻开始手术。有腹痛或者败血病表现的病人，如果不能用其他的发现来解释，应当进行手术。
•        Those patients suspected of having acute intestinal ischemia should be operated on after complete evaluation. Certain radiographic findings confidently predict the need for operation. These finding include pneumoperitoneum and radiologic evidence of gastrointestinal perforation. Patients presenting with abdominal pain and free intra-abodominal gas seen on radiograph  warrant operation with limited exceptions.
•        对那些怀疑有急性肠道缺血的病人，在完整的评估后应当手术治疗。某些X光照相术的检查结果可以明确地预测手术的必要性。这些结果包括气腹征和放射学上胃肠道穿孔的证据。出现腹痛和X光下可见腹内游离气体的病人很少有例外不需要手术。
•        Observation with serial examinations may be appropriate for a patient with free gas after a colonoscopy. Intra-abdominal gas can persist for a day or two following celiotomy.  Imaging tests can reveal signs of vascular occlusion requiring operation.
•        对于结肠镜检查后产生游离气体的病人，进行一系列检查和观察是恰当的 。腹内气体可以在剖腹探查后持续存在一两天。影像学检查能够揭示血管闭塞需要手术的征象。
•        After careful examination and evaluation, diagnostic uncertainty can remain. Some patients may have equivocal physical findings. When this occurs and the diagnosis is unclear and the patients wellness is unclear, it may be advisable to defer operation and to re-examine the patient carefully after several hours. This is best done in a short-stay unit in the hospital, in a special unit in the emergency department, or if necessary, by regular hospital admission.
•        在仔细检查和评估后，诊断上的不确定性仍可以存在。一些病人的体检结果可能是模棱两可的。遇到这种情况以及诊断不明确、病人的健康状态不明朗的时候，可以建议推迟手术并于几小时后仔细复查病人。这最好在医院的短期护理部门完成，或者在急诊部门的某个特殊单元内或者如果必要的话，在常规住院的时候进行。
•        In a period of hours, vague pain with minimal physical findings may proceed to definite localized pain with tenderness, guarding, and rebound tenderness; if that occurs, operation should follow. After several  hours , the patient’s symptoms and signs may also resolve. When that happens, the patient can be dismissed, although the patient should have a follow-up appointment scheduled within a day or so to permit re-examination to be certain that an important diagnosis was not missed.
•        在几个小时内，不确定的疼痛伴随极少的体检可能发展为明确的局限性疼痛伴随压痛、防卫姿势和反跳痛，如果这种情况发生，就应当着手进行手术。数小时后，病人的症状和体征也可以消退，这种情况下，病人可以出院，但在大约一天内要进行随诊，以便进行复查以确定没有遗漏重要的诊断。
•        Certain patients are difficult to evaluate because of special characteristics. For example, patients who are neurologically impaired as result of stroke or a spinal cord injury may be difficult to evaluate. Patients who are under the influence of drugs or alcohol may require special or subsequent examination.
•        一些病人由于特殊情况很难予以评估，例如，中风导致的神经系统受损或者脊髓损伤可以很难评估，受到药物或者酒精影响的病人也许需要特殊的或者进一步的检查。
•        Patiens who take steroids or are otherwise immunosuppressed deserve special mention because steroids and immunosuppression mask the intensity of abdominal pain and the physical findings of severe, life-threatening intra-abdominal disease. Patients in this category who have persistent, unequivocal abdominal pain and even minimal findings should be considered for surgical operation.
•        服用类固醇或者其它采取其它免疫抑制方法治疗的病人应当进行特别关注，因为它们掩盖腹部疼痛的强度和严重的、甚至危及生命的腹腔内疾病的检查结果。这种类型的病人伴有持续并确定的腹痛，即使只有极少的检查结果，也应当考虑手术。
•        Some patients with clear findings of the acute abdomen may be treated without surgical operation. For example, patients with perforated duodenal ulcer who seek attention late in the course of their disease after they have been sick for several days may be treated best by careful supportive care including nasogastric suction, intravenous fluids, and pain relief.
•        一些有清楚检查结果的急腹症病人可以并不需要手术处理。例如十二指肠溃疡穿孔的病人在病后数日才来就诊的，可以进行细心的支持治疗包括鼻胃管吸出、静脉输液和止痛。
•        Certain patients with empyema of the gallbladder, especially those with other serious concomitant illnesses, can be treated by percutaneous drainage of the infected gallbladder and careful supportive care rather than with cholecystectomy.
•        某些病人伴有胆囊积脓，尤其那些伴有严重并发症的病人，可以对感染的胆囊进行经皮引流并予以仔细周到的支持治疗，这要胜过胆囊切除术。

Chapter47   Approach to the patient with pain

•        Believe the patient’s complaint of pain. Despite decades of effort, there is no neurophysiologic or chemical test that can measure pain in individual patients. The most promising technique, functional brain imaging, so far shows only rough correlation with reports of acute pain and has been disappointing for chronic pain. Objective observations of grimacing, limping, and tachycardia may be useful in assessing the patient, but these signs are often absent in patients with chronic pain caused by large structural lesions.
•        要相信病人主诉的疼痛。尽管经过数十年的努力，仍没有神经生理学或者化学检测方法用以衡量病人个体化的痛感。最有希望的技术--功能性脑成像，截至目前也只能粗略地显示与急性疼痛的相关性，而在慢性疼痛方面的表现令人失望。客观地观察痛苦面容、跛行和心动过速的情况可能对评估病人有用，但这些迹象在结构性损害导致的慢性疼痛病人身上可能缺如。
•        The clinician can acknowledge the patient’s report of pain before understanding its cause. Acceptance of the patient’s reality of pain does not obligate the physician to provide strong opioids or other particular types of treatment.
•        Clarify the temporal aspects of the pain. The circumstances and speed on onset of the pain not only are pertinent to diagnosis, but also guide the choice of treatment methods whose onset and duration of effect should correspond to the true cause of pain.
•        临床医生在了解病人疼痛起因之前就可以得知病人对疼痛的主诉。认可病人的疼痛的真实性并非意味着医生有责任要给予阿片类强镇痛剂或者其它特殊类型的治疗。
•        查明短暂的疼痛。疼痛起初的状况和发展速度不仅与诊断有关，也指导了治疗方法的选择，而这些治疗方法初始的和持续的疗效与疼痛真实起因相关。

•        Evaluate the response to previous and current analgesic therapies. The dose and duration of each previous treatment should be recorded. Optimal doses of the best medication for a particular syndrome often produce gratifying results in patients who failed a brief trial with lower doses.
•        Record the severity of pain and functional impairment with a measure simple enough for repeated use. Extensive work in many diseases has shown that changes in a 0-to-10 scale for pain intensity are valid and sensitive for detecting meaningful relief.
•        评估病人对以前和当前正在使用的镇痛剂的反应。既往用药的剂量和持续时间应当记录在案。对特定综合征的最佳用药优化后的剂量往往可以在低剂量简单试验性治疗失败的病人中产生令人满意的结果。
•        用一个可以重复使用的足够便捷的方法记录疼痛的严重程度和功能性损伤。对许多疾病开展的大规模工作显示，将疼痛分级定为0-10级对于评测疼痛显著的缓解是有效并且灵敏的。
•        Pain-related functional limitations can be assessed either by using the patient’s choice of important activities or by asking the patient how much, on a 0-to-10 scale, pain has interfered with domains such as general activity, mood, walking, work, relations with other people, sleep, and enjoyment of life. Evaluate the psychological state of the patient. Unrecognized depression and anxiety disorders are common in patients with chronic pain.
•        疼痛相关的功能性限制可以用以下方法评估：通过病人对重要活动的选择，或者通过询问病人，以0-10的分级尺度，疼痛对他的影响范围如何，包括对日常活动、情绪、行走、工作、与他人的关系、睡眠以及生活娱乐造成了多少阻碍。
•        对病人心理学状态的评估。对慢性疼痛患者来说，未被认知的抑郁和焦虑症非常普遍。
•        Patients readily tell the clinician about these if asked, and these mood disorders are readily treatable. The presence of suicidal thoughts and the pain’s effect on the patient’s sexual activities should be assessed. It is often helpful to ask patients how they are coping in the face of the pain or what keeps them from giving up because these responses identify sources of strength on which the clinician can build.
•        对于被询问时毫不犹豫地告诉医生这些表现的病人，治疗这类的情感障碍也相对容易。患者的自杀倾向和疼痛对于患者性活动的影响应当进行评估。询问患者如何面对疼痛或者什么使他们不放弃是很有用的，因为这些反应与临床医生可以建立起来的强度源相关。
•        Develop a series of diagnosis-based hypotheses. Because pain may result from disease at the pain site or be referred from other parts of the body, it may be helpful to list all the possibilities for the site of origin, particularly when the pain has been resistant to therapy. Persistent rib pain in a patient with metastatic cancer despite radiation therapy to the lesion in that rib would raise the possibility of referred pain from thoracic epidural tumor, which can be imaged and treated. For each potential site of the lesion, the list of the common disease processes in that area can be considered.
•        发展一系列基于诊断方法的假说。因为疼痛可以来自疼痛部位的疾病或者源于机体其它部位的牵涉疼，那么罗列出疼痛原发部位的所有可能性就会有所帮助，尤其当疼痛对治疗无效时。转移癌患者的持续性肋骨疼痛，尽管放疗对该肋骨的损害会增高可以照相和治疗的胸膜瘤导致的牵涉疼的可能性。对每种潜在的损害部位，可以考虑列举出那个区域的通常的疾病过程。
•        Personally review the diagnostic procedures. In the reevaluation of difficult pain diagnoses, it is remarkable how often lesions had been missed previously on imaging procedures, particularly when the radiologist was not given a specific diagnostic hypothesis.
•            In patients with multiple chronic symptoms that are unexplained despite a full diagnostic evaluation, consider the possibility of multisomatoform disorder.
•        针对患者个体回顾诊断过程。在对难以诊断的疼痛的重新评估中，机体损伤在先前的影像学诊断过程中很明显地被频繁遗漏，尤其当放射学者不能给予特异性的疑似一些患者的多种慢性病症在完全诊断评估后仍难以解释，要考虑多重躯体形式障碍的可能性。
•        This more recently proposed diagnosis, which applies to one tenth of primary care visits, is defined by the presence of three bothersome and unexplained complaints, some of which have troubled the patient on most days in the previous 2 years.
•        这个最近提出的诊断适用于十分之一的初诊患者，被定义为存在三个令人困扰并难以解释的主诉症状，其中某些症状在过去的两年中的大部分的时间中困扰着患者。
•        Depending on the presenting complaint or the clinician’s specialty, many of these patients are said to have fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue, irritable bowel syndrome, idiopathic, low back pain, or chronic tension-type headaches, but most of these patients have multisystem complaints.
•        依据现病史或临床医生的专长，许多这类患者被告知患了纤维肌痛、慢性劳损、肠激惹综合征、原发性的、腰疼或者慢性紧张性头疼，但多数这类病人有多系统症状。
•        Laboratory studies suggest that generalized amplification of symptoms by the central nervous system is common in these patients. Recognition of multisomatoform disorder alerts the clinician to look closely for depressive or panic disorders, whose prevalence is high in these patients; to treat with antidepressants or cognitive behavioral treatment, shown to reduce symptoms; and to limit elaborate diagnostic testing or potentially hazardous medical treatments.
•        实验室研究提示，通过中枢神经系统被广泛放大的症状在这些病人当中很普遍。对多重躯体形式障碍的认识警示临床医生密切观察抑郁性或者惊恐性障碍，这类疾病在这些病人当中流行程度非常高。给予抗抑郁药或者认知行为治疗显示可以减轻症状，并要限制详细制定的诊断测验或具有潜在危险的治疗。
•        Reassess the patient’s response to pain therapy. The principles of analgesic treatment are simple, but dose requirements and adverse effects vary widely. The key to successful treatment is often a daily phone call until the patient’s treatment has been optimized.
•        重新评价病人对疼痛治疗的反应。镇痛剂治疗的原则很简单，但是所需剂量和出现的不良作用差异巨大。治疗成功的关键往往是每日通一次电话，直至对病人的治疗被最优化。
•        neurophysiologic神经生理学的
•        limping跛行
•        psychological心理的
•        anxiety disorder焦虑症
•        rib肋骨
•        referred pain 牵涉性痛
•        Thoracic胸的
•        radiologist放射学家
•        multisomatoform多重躯体形式障碍
•        fibromyalgia纤维肌痛
•        irritable bowel syndrome肠易激惹综合症
•        antidepressant抗抑郁药

Chapter54   Benefit of Early enteral feeding versus parenteral nutrition

•        It is often said that enteral nutrition is safer and more efficacious than the parenteral route.
•        人们通常认为肠内营养比肠外营养更安全,更有效. However a preliminary note of caution is raised from observations in experimental animals, which concluded that outcomes of enteral and parentaeral nutrition were equivalent when animals with catheter sepsis were eliminated. 但是据动物实验观察的首项附注告诉我们当导管脓毒症消除以后，肠内和肠外营养结果是类似的。
•        Numerous studies have shown that it is safe to feed the gut in the immediate postoperative period and that this practice does not place the integrity of intestinal anastomoses at risk. 为数众多的研究表明术后即刻的肠内营养是安全的，同时对肠吻合口的完整也不会带来风险。Early feeding has been studied primarily in two patient populations: those who have undergone gastrointestinal surgery and in traumatically injured or critically ill persons. 早期进食实验最初是在两群病人中进行：一个病群是胃肠术后有外伤的病人，另一个为垂危的病人。
•        A recent meta-analysis reviewed 11 prospective, randomized, controlled trails that compared the practice of early enteral feeding to maintaining patients NPO after elective gastrointestinal surgery. 最近的一项荟萃分析考察了11个随机分组前瞻性的对照研究，这些研究比较了择期胃肠术后进行早期肠内营养以保持禁食的病人。
•        Meta分析是指用统计学方法对收集的多个研究资料进行分析和概括,以提供量化的平均效果来回答研究的问题.其优点是通过增大样本含量来增加结论的可信度,解决研究结果的不一致性 。
•        This analysis of 837 patients concluded that there is no clear advantage to keeping patients NPO postoperatively and that early feeding may be of benefit in decreasing infections and shortening postoperative length of stay. 对837位病人的研究标明术后禁食病人（比早期肠内营养）没有明显益处，而且早期进食可以降低感染率，缩短手术后住院时间。
•        However, a closer evaluation of this data reveals that the length of stay was reduced only by 0.84 day, and although there was an increase in “any type of infection” in the NPO group, when considered individually, there was no difference in the incidence of anastomotic dehiscence, wound infections, pneumonia, intra-abdominal abscess, or mortality. 然儿一项新近的关于此数据的研究揭示，其住院时间仅仅缩短了0.84天，而尽管禁食组病人“感染”发生率提高了，在对个体进行分析后， 发现吻和口瘘、切口感染、肺炎、腹内脓肿及死亡的发生率在两组间均没有差异。
•        In 2001 Marik and Zaloga performed a meta-analysis of 15 randomized, controlled trials involving 753 subjects that compared early with delayed enteral nutrition in critically ill surgical patients. Early enteral nutrition was associated with a significantly lower incidence of infection (relative risk reduction of 0.45) and reduced length of hospital stay (2.2 days less). 2001年 M和Z对15个随机对照试验进行了meta分析，这些试验包括了753例危重外科病人，以比较早期和晚期肠内营养的不同。早期肠内营养组感染发生率显著较低（相对风险降低0.45），住院日也有减少（少2.2天）。
•        There were no differences in noninfectious complications or in mortality. The authors concluded that early initiation of enteral feeding was beneficial, but this result must be interpreted with caution because of substantial heterogeneity between studies.  非传染性并发症和死亡率未见差异。作者认为早期开始肠内营养是有益的，但是考虑到研究之间中的大量差异性，这个结果需要谨慎理解。
•        The studies that compared enteral and parenteral nutrition in the trauma population, as discussed earlier, concluded that enteral was superior because of an attenuated inflammatory response and a decrease in septic morbidity. When these studies are examined more closely, it is clear that patients who were fed enterally usually received significantly less calories than those fed parenterally.
•        外伤人群中的肠内和肠外营养研究比较，如上讨论，肠内营养较好，因为更轻微的炎症反应和更低的败血病发病率。更仔细的检视这些研究，会清楚地发现，与肠外营养相比，进行肠内营养的患者通常接受了更少的卡路里。
•        This discrepancy of “relative overfeeding” in the TPN(total parenteral nutrition) groups in many instances led to hyperglycemia, presumably predisposing patients to immune dysfunction and nosocomial infection.
•        这种“相对摄入过量”的差异在全胃肠外营养组中的许多实例身上导致了高血糖，这可能导致病人发生免疫功能障碍和院内感染。
•        Thus, poor glucose control alone may account for the observed differences in outcome. In more contemporary studies where feeds are carefully advanced in a manner that avoids hyperglycemia and groups are fed equivalent protein and calories, there appears to be little difference in clinical outcome between enteral and parenteral routes of feeding.
•        因此，单单粗略的血糖对照就可以解释在结果中观察到的差异。在更多当代的研究中，通过用一定程度上更谨慎和先进的方法提供食物，以避免高血糖，并且各组成员被予以等量的蛋白质和卡路里，则在肠内和肠外营养组之间的临床结果仅稍有不同。
•        Enteral nutrition also can endanger patient safety in unique ways.
•         Deaths in persons receiving enteral nutrition are often due to aspiration, for example when gastric motility suddenly is impaired with the onset of sepsis. One death from aspiration is equivalent to the mortality over 2 to 3 years of well-operated parenteral nutrition program, despite the danger of catheter sepsis, which in well-operated units is now less than 1% to 3%.
•        肠内营养也能够以独特的方式使病人的安全受到威胁。
•        接受肠内营养的人的死亡往往由于误吸。例如当脓毒症发病时胃能动性忽然受损。尽管导管脓毒症的危险性在操作良好的单位低于1-3%，一次因误吸导致的死亡相当于在良好的肠外营养操作程序下超过2-3年间的死亡率 。

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